010 - Behavioralism and Classical Contitioning

I have so far discussed some of the early psychosexual, psychosocial and cognitive approaches to child development, but I would be remiss if I did not also mention a group of theorists who attempted to study humanity by completely ignoring the fact that they have thoughts and emotions.  The behavioralists tried to simplify the study of humans by massively simplifying their assumptions about humans.  In fact, they are primarily criticized for vastly oversimplifying humans.  For instance, they assumed that behaviors were basically just reactions to the environment without any deeper meaning.  These responses are learned based on environmental inputs.  Whatever else is happening on the inside is either irrelevant or extraneous.  All we can really see are behaviors, so we should only study behavior.  This episode focuses on Classical Conditioning.

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Transcript

The following is an outline of the content of this episode.

Classical Conditioning

Kerplunk and “muscle memory”

The "Kerplunk" experiment, conducted by John B. Watson and Harvey A. Carr in 1907, was a pivotal study in the development of behaviorism. It focused on understanding how rats learn to navigate mazes and how their behavior is influenced by sensory feedback and learned associations.

Here's a breakdown of the experiment:

1. Training: Rats were trained to run down a straight alleyway in a maze to reach a food reward at the end. Over time, the rats became highly efficient at navigating the maze.
2. Manipulation: Once the rats were well-trained, Watson and Carr dramatically shortened the alleyway. The food reward was still present, but it was now much closer to the starting point.
   Observation: Instead of slowing down or adjusting their behavior to the new maze length, the rats continued to run at full speed, crashing headfirst into the end wall. This produced a "kerplunk" sound, giving the experiment its name.
   
   
   

Key Findings and Implications:

• Habit Formation: The experiment demonstrated that the rats had developed a strong habit of running the original length of the alley. This habit was so ingrained that they were unable to adapt to the change in the maze, even when it meant missing out on the food reward.  Maybe you have heard the term “muscle memory.”  Well, I have read that this is where it got its start.
• Kinesthetic Sense: Watson and Carr argued that the rats were primarily relying on their kinesthetic sense (awareness of their body's movement) to navigate the maze. They had learned a specific sequence of movements, and the sudden change in the maze disrupted this learned pattern.
• Challenge to Stimulus-Response: This experiment challenged the traditional stimulus-response view of learning, which suggested that animals respond directly to external stimuli. Instead, the "Kerplunk" experiment showed that learned behaviors can become automated and resistant to change, even when the environment changes.
  • This experiment is actually more in line with the modern idea of active inference, which was first laid out by neuroscientist Karl Friston, and it posits that an agent acts upon the world so-as to create the reality that they predict, rather than merely as a simple response to external stimuli; but pretend that I didn’t just say that because a discussion of active inference is not at home with a quick review of behavioralism.

Impact on Behaviorism:

The "Kerplunk" experiment provided evidence for Watson's idea that behavior is largely a product of learned associations and habits. It highlighted the importance of studying observable behavior and emphasized the role of environmental factors in shaping behavior.  What we do is not a choice we make, but in many ways a predetermined protocol we initiate. This study contributed to the development of behaviorism as a dominant force in psychology during the early 20th century.

Beyond the "Kerplunk":

The findings of this experiment have had broader implications for understanding learning and behavior in both animals and humans. It suggests that habits, once formed, can be difficult to break, even when they are no longer beneficial. This has implications for understanding addiction, compulsive behaviors, and the challenges of changing ingrained habits.

Ivan Pavlov

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, conducted groundbreaking research on classical conditioning in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. His experiments, primarily involving dogs, laid the foundation for understanding how learning occurs through association.

Pavlov's Foundational Experiments:

Pavlov's most famous experiments focused on the digestive system of dogs.  He was a physiologist and it could be said that his demonstration of operant conditioning was an accident.  He had not hypothesized operant conditioning. However, he observed that dogs naturally salivated (an unconditioned response) when presented with food (an unconditioned stimulus). This innate reflex formed the basis of his research.  He won the Nobel prize for his work in physiology (not psychology). In fact, there is no Nobel prize for psychology.

1. Baseline: Pavlov initially measured the amount of saliva produced by dogs when they were presented with food. This established a baseline for natural, unconditioned salivation.
   
   
   
2. Introducing a Neutral Stimulus: Pavlov introduced a neutral stimulus, such as the sound of a bell or a metronome, which initially did not elicit any salivation response from the dogs.
   
   
   
3. Pairing the Stimuli: He then repeatedly paired the neutral stimulus (bell) with the presentation of food (unconditioned stimulus). The bell was rung just before or at the same time as the food was presented.
   
   
   
4. Conditioned Response: After several pairings, Pavlov observed that the dogs began to salivate in response to the bell alone, even in the absence of food. The bell had become a conditioned stimulus, eliciting a conditioned response (salivation).
   
   
   

Key Findings and Principles:

• Classical Conditioning: Pavlov demonstrated that a neutral stimulus, when repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus, can elicit a conditioned response.
• Acquisition: The phase during which the association between the neutral and unconditioned stimuli is learned is called acquisition.
• Extinction: If the conditioned stimulus (bell) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (food), the conditioned response (salivation)2 gradually weakens and eventually disappears. This is called extinction.
• Spontaneous Recovery: Even after extinction, the conditioned response can reappear after a period of rest, demonstrating that the learned association is not completely erased.
• Generalization: Pavlov also observed that dogs would salivate in response to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus, such as a different bell with a slightly different tone. This is known as generalization.
• Discrimination: However, with further training, dogs could learn to discriminate between different stimuli and only salivate in response to the specific conditioned stimulus.

Impact and Legacy:

Pavlov's experiments revolutionized our understanding of learning and behavior. His work had a profound impact on:

• Psychology: Classical conditioning became a cornerstone of behaviorism, influencing theories of learning, emotion, and behavior therapy.
• Education: Pavlov's principles have been applied to classroom learning and behavior management.
• Advertising: Advertisers use classical conditioning to associate positive emotions with their products.
• Therapy: Techniques like exposure therapy, used to treat phobias and anxiety disorders, are based on principles of classical conditioning.

Pavlov's meticulous research and groundbreaking findings continue to be relevant today, shaping our understanding of learning, behavior, and the interplay between the environment and our responses. His legacy extends far beyond the laboratory, influencing various fields and our everyday lives.

Little Albert

The "Little Albert" experiment, conducted in 1920 by John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner at Johns Hopkins University, is one of the most famous and controversial studies in the history of psychology. It aimed to demonstrate that emotional responses like fear could be learned through classical conditioning.

Here's a breakdown of the experiment:

1. Subject: The subject was a 9-month-old infant known as "Little Albert." He was initially assessed to be emotionally stable and showed no fear of various stimuli (white rat, rabbit, dog, monkey, masks, burning newspaper).
   
   
   
2. Establishing a Conditioned Response:
   • Neutral Stimulus: A white rat was presented to Albert, which he initially showed no fear of.
   • Unconditioned Stimulus: A loud, clanging noise (made by striking a steel bar with a hammer) was introduced, which naturally startled and frightened Albert (unconditioned response).
   • Pairing: The rat (neutral stimulus) was repeatedly presented to Albert, immediately followed by the loud noise (unconditioned stimulus).
3. Conditioned Fear: After several pairings, Albert began to exhibit fear (crying, crawling away) in response to the rat alone, even without the noise. The rat had become a conditioned stimulus, eliciting a conditioned fear response.
   
   
   
4. Generalization: Albert's fear generalized to other furry objects, such as a rabbit, a dog, a fur coat, and even a Santa Claus mask.
   
   
   

Ethical Concerns:

The "Little Albert" experiment is widely criticized today for its ethical shortcomings:

• No Informed Consent: Albert's mother, a wet nurse at the hospital, may not have been fully informed about the nature of the experiment or provided proper consent.
• Psychological Harm: The experiment deliberately induced a fear response in a young child, with no attempt to extinguish this fear afterward. Albert left the hospital before any deconditioning could occur.
• Lack of Debriefing: There was no follow-up to assess any long-term psychological impact on Albert.

Impact on Behaviorism:

Despite its ethical issues, the "Little Albert" experiment had a significant impact on the development of behaviorism:

• Classical Conditioning in Humans: It provided evidence that classical conditioning could be used to explain the acquisition of emotional responses in humans.
• Understanding Phobias: The study suggested that phobias could develop through learned associations, supporting the behavioral approach to understanding and treating anxiety disorders.

While the "Little Albert" experiment is a landmark study in psychology, its actual results were not very impressive and may have been greatly exaggerated. However it does at least serve as a reminder of the ethical responsibilities of researchers and the importance of protecting the well-being of participants.  In the end, it also inspired a plethora of other researchers to attempt to understand stimulus response, including Ivan Pavlov.

A review of Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning, a type of learning proposed by Ivan Pavlov, is a process in which an organism comes to associate an initially neutral stimulus with a meaningful stimulus. This principle has been applied to understand and influence infant behavior.

Classical conditioning key ideas:

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): This is a stimulus that naturally elicits a response without prior learning. For example, food is an unconditioned stimulus for a dog.
• Unconditioned Response (UCR): This is a natural, unlearned response to an unconditioned stimulus. For example, salivation is an unconditioned response to food.
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): This is a neutral stimulus that becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus through repeated pairings. For example, a bell might be a conditioned stimulus.
• Conditioned Response (CR): This is a learned response to the conditioned stimulus. For example, salivation in response to a bell is a conditioned response.

Example of Classical Conditioning:

1. Before conditioning: A dog salivates (UCR) in response to food (UCS). A bell (CS) has no effect on the dog.
2. During conditioning: The bell (CS) is rung immediately before food (UCS) is presented. This pairing is repeated multiple times.
3. After conditioning: The dog salivates (CR) in response to the bell (CS) alone, even without the presentation of food.

In this example, the bell has become a conditioned stimulus because it has been associated with the unconditioned stimulus (food). The salivation in response to the bell is a conditioned response, as it is learned and not a natural reflex.

Examples of Classical Conditioning in Infancy:

1. Feeding: Infants often associate the sound of a bottle or breast with the act of feeding. This conditioning can lead to anticipatory responses, such as rooting or sucking, when the sound is heard.
2. Diaper Changes: Infants may learn to associate the sight of a diaper with the unpleasant sensation of a diaper change. This can lead to distress or crying even before the change begins.
3. Pacifier: If a pacifier is consistently paired with comfort or relaxation, infants may come to associate the pacifier with feelings of calm.

Implications of Classical Conditioning in Infancy:

• Understanding Infant Behavior: Classical conditioning can help explain why infants may react in certain ways to specific stimuli. For example, a child may cry at the sight of a doctor's office due to past associations with discomfort during medical procedures.
• Modifying Infant Behavior: By understanding classical conditioning, caregivers can modify infant behavior. For instance, if a child associates a particular toy with distress, the toy can be temporarily removed to reduce anxiety.
• Creating Positive Associations: Classical conditioning can be used to create positive associations between neutral stimuli and pleasant experiences. For example, playing soothing music during feeding time can help infants associate the music with comfort and relaxation.

You're right to look beyond bells and dogs! Classical conditioning is everywhere in our lives. Here are some examples of conditioned and unconditioned responses in different contexts:

1. Food Aversions

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Food poisoning after eating a specific food (e.g., spoiled fish).
• Unconditioned Response (UCR): Nausea and vomiting.
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The smell or sight of that specific food.
• Conditioned Response (CR): Feeling nauseous or disgusted when encountering that food again, even if it's fresh.

2. Advertising

• UCS: Attractive images (e.g., happy people, beautiful scenery).
• UCR: Positive emotions (e.g., happiness, excitement).
• CS: A product (e.g., a car, a soft drink).
• CR: Positive feelings associated with the product, leading to a desire to purchase it.

3. Fear Responses

• UCS: A traumatic event (e.g., a car accident).
• UCR: Fear and anxiety.
• CS: A location or situation associated with the trauma (e.g., a specific intersection, the sound of screeching tires).
• CR: Feeling anxious or fearful when encountering those locations or sounds.

4. Drug-Related Cues

• UCS: The physiological effects of a drug (e.g., the rush from heroin).
• UCR: Pleasure and euphoria.
• CS: Environmental cues associated with drug use (e.g., a specific location, paraphernalia).
• CR: Cravings and physiological responses (e.g., increased heart rate) when encountering those cues.

5. Emotional Reactions to Music

• UCS: A significant emotional event (e.g., a first dance at a wedding).
• UCR: Strong emotions (e.g., joy, love).
• CS: A song played during that event.
• CR: Feeling those emotions when hearing the song again.